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A brief introduction to detection dogs  
Posted by Susan Lillard  
Tuesday, 29 April 2008


Detection Dogs
Handling and Training
Andy Falco
Falco K9 Academy

Detection dogs are some of the greatest tools we have to locate hidden substances, whether they’re narcotics, bombs, termites, incendiary mold or any other ODOR you have trained your dog to locate.  However, one thing that can make a detection dog ineffective is a poor handler.  This may or may not be news to you, but you must be aware of it or you are doomed to fail.  You must also know that it is not necessarily my style to place “blame” on the handler for messing his dog up, but it is important to know the ways in which you could cause your dog to become or remain ineffective.

Selection of the Proper Dog
To ensure that you are working with a dog that has been properly selected, I first need to discuss what is essential in a detection dog.  I’m sure that every handler believes his or her dog is one of the best, and was properly selected; however, I have taught at many seminars where the fact that a dog was not locating odor was not the fault of the handler…simply, the wrong dog was selected for the job.
Whether a dog is being trained with food or a toy, the most important thing is that he has a strong motivation for one or both.  This desire must be natural, and not forced upon the dog.  If you have to starve a dog in order to motivate him, that is not a natural desire for food; similarly, if you have to force his interest in retrieving a toy, the method is not going to work. The reward, whether food or toy, is the motivating factor that causes the dog to search for the odor/s we have imprinted on his brain, and desire for the reward should be the foremost thing on his mind.  This motivator must be stronger than anything else that could prove distracting (animal smells, rodents, humans, etc). A dog who is easily distracted will almost always be a poor candidate for this work.
Next, and just as important, your dog must have a strong desire to hunt, meaning he will stay on task to find the one thing that he is seeking (in this case it is the food or toy he’s been trained with that has been linked to an odor).  In some cases, dogs have a strong desire for food or a toy but will not hunt for it…these are the ones that go crazy when they see the toy in your hand or bouncing about on the ground (visual). They will chase and retrieve this toy as long as they see it, but as soon as it’s out of sight they stop and stare at you to throw another one, or want you to go find the “lost” toy.  In other words, they have no desire to hunt for it.  Other dogs may hunt for a short period of time and quit.  What you need for detection work is one that never quits, or at least does not quit easily.
Some of the other traits you will (obviously) need in a dog:
• Healthy
• Trainable
• Courageous
• Sociable
• Confident

Working With the Dog’s Natural Talents
Every dog has a natural ability to hunt and detect what it wants.  And I stated before, individuals respond on various levels to different motivators.  The challenge for us is to train a dog to search for something that we want to find, such as an explosive.  So, what we have to do is teach the dog that we are searching for something that he wants.  Sometimes the problem is that we forget this and become emotional about it, or we begin to “force” the issue with the dog.  Remember, it is natural for dogs to search for things that they want, so use this to your advantage.
Do your best not to get caught up in the emotion of “having to find something,” or in the pressure of the moment.  Years ago, I was searching for narcotics in front of my administration at the Anaheim Police Department and the DEA; this was a huge case for the department, and I was told: Your dog has to find something.  Naturally, a fantastic detection dog was then turned into an average dog that appeared to be untrained and had absolutely no ability to find anything!  I had allowed myself to become emotional about the search, and the dog was confused and did not understand why I was acting so strangely.  It is very true that your emotions go straight down the leash to the dog.
Therefore, you must do your best to work as you train and train as you work.  This detection thing is simply a game and you both should enjoy doing it.  If at any time it becomes work, or stressful for either one of you, your effectiveness will diminish or become nonexistent.

Your Role as the Handler
If your dog is properly selected, properly imprinted and properly trained, he should not need you.  You are merely a taxi cab driver and facilitator in the searching process.  I know this is hard for you as the leader of your pack, but in the case of running a detection dog you are going to be following the dog’s lead…in general.  Now, don’t go crazy on me with this aspect, but you really are going to simply make sure that your dog gets to the search location, and then assist him in getting to the places he needs to be in order to have the highest probability of locating odor.  The less you distract him and get in his way, the more successful you will be.  You do not need to tell your dog to “seek, seek, seek, seek” endlessly, or point out search areas until he begins to ignore you.  Save your motivation until you really need it to complete your search.  I see and hear far too many handlers annoying their dogs and distracting them from the task at hand.
This philosophy goes back to the understanding that your detection dog has a natural ability to hunt, and truly wants to find the odor he has been trained to find.  Over time and with proper training, the dog will learn where he needs to sniff in order to be successful; so, although you may occasionally need to point out a seam in a car or an electrical socket, over time and with proper training your dog will seek and locate things on his own.  When you see this happen, you only need to say “Good Boy,” and move on. After a period of time you will only reinforce every so often, and eventually there will be a point when you barely speak to your dog at all.  You will no longer need you to “help” him, you will only need to ensure that he goes to the places in your search area that he needs to go.

On Leash or Off Leash
Simply put, it depends, but you should train your dog to do both.  I believe there is always a time for one or the other. You might go on 10 to 20 searches that require you to handle your dog on leash, and then you will get that one…or just the opposite.  Your dog may have a preference at first, but that is why we have the philosophy at Falco K9 Academy to “Train what you are bad at…not always what you are good at.”  Sometimes as humans we get into a rut, and we do what comes most easily.  So, if you are struggling with your dog at doing off leash searches, then you probably should reduce the size of the search area and teach your dog how to search off leash.
Training off leash will help take you out of the picture when it comes to influencing your dog.  With the leash we tend to communicate where the find is, or where we think it is.  Sometimes we cannot help pulling up on the leash, or dropping it when we know the dog is close to a find.  If your dog is good at off leash searching, you can stand back and simply watch.  If you learn not to talk to your dog so much, you will not make the mistake of verbally queuing him, and he will learn to make the find on his own.
In training or working on leash, you have to be careful not to use the leash as a communication tool.  It should be, in most cases, loose and only used to redirect the dog to a location that needs to be searched.   Your hands needs to be soft on the leash, with the ability to move it in and out of your hand in order to prevent it from getting entangled or tight.  Working the leash is an art, and it should ultimately be relaxed and natural.

Videotaping your Searches
Videoing your training and searches is a great tool for you and your dog’s effectiveness;  this is the best way to see how you influence and help your dog make the find.  It is extremely important that your dog shows you where the find is, and not the other way around. 
As you watch the tape, look for some to the following:
• Changing your pace near the find
• Pulling or extending the leash near the find
• Dropping the leash near the find
• Changng the pitch of your voice near the find
• Constantly talk to your dog
• Forcing the dog through the search
• Getting in the dog’s way
• Missing changes in the dog’s body language when he is near the find
• Pulling your dog off finds
• Bending at your waist during the search and then standing up straight near the find
• Reaching for the reward near the find, before the dog shows interest or when the dog shows interest
• Dragging your feet near the find
• Look for any other changes in your behavior as you near the find
Do not worry about any video of your training being used against you in court.  These videos are part of the training process, and will show that you are conscientious about improvement and are constantly in review of the effectiveness of you and your dog.   As long as you are not abusive to your dog, or he never finds anything on the tape, you are only going to benefit from it in court; the opposition will not want the jury or judge seeing you doing effective training.

Summary
My hope for you as you read this is that you will become a better handler by becoming less involved in the search.   This will allow for the dog to do the detecting, and for you to be the brains of the operation.  As you become less involved in working the dog, your world will open up and you will see more of the search area, and actually see the sudden changes in your dog as he gets into and out of odor.  By being less involved in pointing, blocking and whatever else you may think you need to be involved in, you are able to actually stand back and supervise.  This means evaluating your search area with one eye, and watching your dog’s signals with the other.  You will be amazed at what happens when you just allow your dog to work.  Happy Hunting!

 


Mycotoxin list  
Posted by Susan Lillard  
Monday, 28 April 2008

Mycotoxins List – Susan Lillard 1

Mycotoxin List

Susan Lillard

President of the Mold Help Organization

Some Common Mycotoxins

Mycotoxin Descriptions

Mycotoxins produced by indoor fungi

Molds can produce other secondary metabolites (see list in table below) such as

antibiotics and mycotoxins. Antibiotics are isolated from mold (and some bacterial)

cultures and some of their bacteriotoxic or bacteriostatic properties are exploited

medicinally to combat infections.

Mycotoxins are also products of secondary metabolism of molds. They are not essential

to maintaining the life of the mold cell in a primary way (at least in a friendly world),

such as obtaining energy or synthesizing structural components, informational molecules

or enzymes. They are products whose function seems to be to give molds a competitive

advantage over other mold species and bacteria. Mycotoxins are nearly all cytotoxic,

disrupting various cellular structures such as membranes, and interfering with vital

cellular processes such as protein, RNA and DNA synthesis. Of course they are also toxic

to the cells of higher plants and animals, including humans.

Mycotoxins vary in specificity and potency for their target cells, cell structures or cell

processes by species and strain of the mold that produces them. Higher organisms are

not specifically targeted by mycotoxins, but seem to be caught in the crossfire of the

biochemical warfare among mold species and molds and bacteria vying for the same

ecological niche.

Not all molds produce mycotoxins, but numerous species do (including some found

indoors in contaminated buildings). Toxigenic molds vary in their mycotoxin production

depending on the substrate on which they grow (Jarvis, 1990). The spores, with which

the toxins are primarily associated, are cast off in blooms that vary with the mold's

diurnal, seasonal and life cycle stage (Burge, 1990; Yang, 1995). The presence of

competitive organisms may play a role, as some molds grown in monoculture in the

laboratory lose their toxic potency (Jarvis, 1995). Until relatively recently, mold poisons

were regarded with concern primarily as contaminants in foods.

More recently concern has arisen over exposure to multiple mycotoxins from a mixture of

mold spores growing in wet indoor environments. Health effects from exposures to such

mixtures can differ from those related to single mycotoxins in controlled laboratory

exposures. Indoor exposures to toxigenic molds resemble field exposures of animals

more closely than they do controlled experimental laboratory exposures. Animals in

controlled laboratory exposures are healthy, of the same age, raised under optimum

conditions, and have only the challenge of known doses of a single toxic agent via a

single exposure route. In contrast, animals in field exposures are of mixed ages, and

Mycotoxins List – Susan Lillard Roberts 2

states of health, may be living in less than optimum environmental and nutritional

conditions, and are exposed to a mixture of toxic agents by multiple exposure routes.

Exposures to individual toxins may be much lower than those required to elicit an

adverse reaction in a small controlled exposure group of ten animals per dose group. The

effects from exposure may therefore not fit neatly into the description given for any

single toxin, or the effects from a particular species, of mold. Field exposures of animals

to molds (in contrast to controlled laboratory exposures) show effects on the immune

system as the lowest observed adverse effect. Such immune effects are manifested in

animals as increased susceptibility to infectious diseases (Jakab et al., 1994). It is

important to note that almost all mycotoxins have an immunosuppressive effect,

although the exact target within the immune system may differ. Many are also cytotoxic,

so that they have route of entry effects that may be damaging to the gut, the skin or the

lung. Such cytotoxicity may affect the physical defense mechanisms of the respiratory

tract, decreasing the ability of the airways to clear particulate contaminants (including

bacteria or viruses), or damage alveolar macrophages, thus preventing clearance of

contaminants from the deeper lung. The combined result of these activities is to increase

the susceptibility of the exposed person to infectious disease, and to reduce his defense

against other contaminants. They may also increase susceptibility to cancer.

Because indoor samples are usually comprised of a mixture of molds and their spores, it

has been suggested that a general test for cytotoxicity be applied to a total indoor

sample to assess the potential for hazard as a rough assessment (Gareis, 1995).

The following summary of toxins and their targets is adapted from Smith and Moss

(1985), with a few additions from the more recent literature. While this compilation of

effects does not describe the effects from multiple exposures, which could include

synergistic effects, it does give a better idea of possible results of mycotoxin exposure to

multiple molds indoors.

Vascular system (increased vascular fragility, hemorrhage into body tissues, or

from lung, e. g., aflatoxin, satratoxin, roridins).

Digestive system (diarrhea, vomiting, intestinal hemorrhage, liver effects, i. e.,

necrosis, fibrosis: aflatoxin; caustic effects on mucous membranes: T-2 toxin;

anorexia: vomitoxin.

Respiratory system: respiratory distress, bleeding from lungs e. g., trichothecenes.

Nervous system, tremors, incoordination, depression, headache, e. g.,

tremorgens, trichothecenes.

Cutaneous system: rash, burning sensation sloughing of skin, photosensitization,

e. g., trichothecenes.

Urinary system, nephrotoxicity, e. g. ochratoxin, citrinin.

Reproductive system; infertility, changes in reproductive cycles, e. g. T-2 toxin,

zearalenone.

Immune system: changes or suppression: many mycotoxins.

It should be noted that not all mold genera have been tested for toxins, nor have all

species within a genus necessarily been tested. Conditions for toxin production vary with

cell and diurnal and seasonal cycles and substrate on which the mold grows, and those

conditions created for laboratory culture may differ from those the mold encounters in its

environment. Toxicity can arise from exposure to mycotoxins via inhalation of mycotoxincontaining

mold spores or through skin contact with the toxigenic molds (Forgacs, 1972;

Mycotoxins List – Susan Lillard Roberts 3

Croft et al., 1986; Kemppainen et al., 1988 -1989). A number of toxigenic molds have

been found during indoor air quality investigations in different parts of the world. Among

the genera most frequently found in numbers exceeding levels that they reach outdoors

are Aspergillus, Penicillium, Stachybotrys, and Cladosporium (Burge, 1986; Smith et al.,

1992; Hirsh and Sosman, 1976; Verhoeff et al., 1992; Miller et al., 1988; Gravesen et

al., 1999).

Some Common Mycotoxins and the Organisms that Produce them

Mycotoxin Organism

Acetoxyscirpenediol Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Acetyldeoxynivalenol Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Acetylneosolaniol Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Acetyl T-2 toxin Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Aflatoxin Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus

Aflatrem Aspergillus flavus

Altenuic acid Alternaria alternata

Alternariol Alternaria alternata

Austdiol Aspergillus ustus

Austamide Aspergillus ustus

Austocystin Aspergillus ustus

Avenacein +1 Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Beauvericin +2 Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Bentenolide Monographella nivalis

Brevianamide Aspergillus ustus

Butenolide Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Calonectrin Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Chaetoglobosin Chaetomium globosum

Citrinin Aspergillus carneus, A. terreus, Penicillium citrinum, P.

hirsutum, P. verrucosum

Citreoviridin Aspergillus terreus, Penicillium citreoviride

Cochliodinol Chaetomium cochliodes

Crotocin Acremonium crotocinigenum

Cytochalasin E Aspergillus clavatus

Cyclopiazonic acid Aspergillus versicolor

Mycotoxins List – Susan Lillard Roberts 4

Deacetylcalonectrin Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Deoxynivalenol

diacetate

Fusarium moniliforme, and F. nivale

Deoxynivalenol

monoacetate

Fusarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, F.

roseum, and F. nivale

Diacetoxyscirpenol Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti

Destruxin B Aspergillus ochraceus

Enniatins Fusarium moniliforme, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, F.

solani, and F. nivale

Fructigenin +1 Fusarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, and

F. roseum

Fumagilin Aspergillus fumigatus

Fumonisin B1 Fusarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, and

F. nivale

Fusaric acid Fusarium moniliforme

Fusarin Fusarium moniliforme

Gliotoxin Alternaria, Aspergillus fumigatus, Penicillium

HT-2 toxin Fusarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, and

F. nivale

Ipomeanine Fusarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, and

F. nivale

Islanditoxin Penicillium islandicum

Lateritin +1 Fusarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, and

F. nivale

Lycomarasmin +1 Fusarium moniliforme

Malformin Aspergillus niger

Maltoryzine Aspergillus spp.

Moniliformin Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Monoacetoxyscirpenol Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Neosolaniol Fusarium moniliforme, F. solani, F. culmorum, F.

avenaceum, and F. roseum

Nivalenol Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

NT-1 toxin Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

NT-2 toxin Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. , F. solani, avenaceum, F. roseum, and F.

nivale

Ochratoxin Aspergillus ochraceus, Penicillium viridictum

Mycotoxins List – Susan Lillard Roberts 5

Oxalic acid Aspergillus niger

Patulin Aspergillus clavatus, Penicillium expansum, Botrytis, P.

roquefortii, P. claviforme, P. griseofulvum

Penicillic acid Aspergillus ochraceus

Penitrem Penicillium crustosum

Roridin E Myrothecium roridum, M. verrucaria, Dendrodochium spp.

, Cylindrocarpon spp. , Stachybotrys spp.

Rubratoxin Penicillium rubrum

Rubroskyrin Penicillium spp.

Rubrosulphin Penicillium viridicatum

Rugulosin Penicillium brunneum, P. kloeckeri, P. rugulosum

Sambucynin +1 Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. solani, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F.

nivale

Satratoxins, F,G,H Stachybotrys chartarum, Trichoderma viridi

Scirpentriol Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. solani, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F.

nivale

Slaframine Rhizoctonia leguminicola

Sterigmatocystin Aspergillus flavus, A. nidulans, A. versicolor, Penicillium

rugulosum

T-1 toxin Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. culmorum, F.

solani, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

T-2 toxin Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. culmorum, F.

solani, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Triacetoxyscirpendiol Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. avenaceum, F.

roseum, and F. nivale

Trichodermin Trichoderma viride

Trichothecin Trichothecium roseum

Trichoverrins Stachybotrys chartarum

Trichoverrols Stachybotrys chartarum

Tryptoquivalene Aspergillus clavatus

Verrucarin Myrothecium verrucaria, Dendrodochium spp. ,

Stachybotrys chartarum

Verruculogen Aspergillus fumigatus, Stachybotrys chartarum

Viopurpurin Trichophyton spp. , Penicillium viridicatum

Viomellein Aspergillus spp. , Penicillium aurantiogriseum, P.

crustosum, P. viridicatum

Viriditoxin Aspergillus fumigatus

Xanthocillin Eurotium chevalieri

Yavanicin+1 Fusarium culmorum, F. graminearum, F. oxysporum, F.

roseum, F. moniliforme, F. avenaceum, F. equiseti, and

Mycotoxins List – Susan Lillard Roberts 6

F. nivale

Zearalenone Fusarium culmorum, F. graminearum, F. oxysporum, F.

roseum, F. moniliforme, F. avenaceum, F. equiseti, and

F. nivale

Mycotoxin Organism

Acetoxyscirpenediol Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Acetyldeoxynivalenol Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Acetylneosolaniol Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Acetyl T-2 toxin Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Aflatoxin Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus

Aflatrem Aspergillus flavus

Altenuic acid Alternaria alternata

Alternariol Alternaria alternata

Austdiol Aspergillus ustus

Austamide Aspergillus ustus

Austocystin Aspergillus ustus

Avenacein +1 Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Beauvericin +2 Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Bentenolide Monographella nivalis

Brevianamide Aspergillus ustus

Butenolide Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Calonectrin Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Chaetoglobosin Chaetomium globosum

Citrinin Aspergillus carneus, A. terreus, Penicillium citrinum, P.

hirsutum, P. verrucosum

Citreoviridin Aspergillus terreus, Penicillium citreoviride

Cochliodinol Chaetomium cochliodes

Crotocin Acremonium crotocinigenum

Cytochalasin E Aspergillus clavatus

Cyclopiazonic acid Aspergillus versicolor

Deacetylcalonectrin Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Deoxynivalenol

diacetate

Fusarium moniliforme, and F. nivale

Mycotoxins List – Susan Lillard Roberts 7

Deoxynivalenol

monoacetate

Fusarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, F.

roseum, and F. nivale

Diacetoxyscirpenol Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti

Destruxin B Aspergillus ochraceus

Enniatins Fusarium moniliforme, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, F.

solani, and F. nivale

Fructigenin +1 Fusarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, and

F. roseum

Fumagilin Aspergillus fumigatus

Fumonisin B1 Fusarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, and

F. nivale

Fusaric acid Fusarium moniliforme

Fusarin Fusarium moniliforme

Gliotoxin Alternaria, Aspergillus fumigatus, Penicillium

HT-2 toxin Fusarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, and

F. nivale

Ipomeanine Fusarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, and

F. nivale

Islanditoxin Penicillium islandicum

Lateritin +1 Fusarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, and

F. nivale

Lycomarasmin +1 Fusarium moniliforme

Malformin Aspergillus niger

Maltoryzine Aspergillus spp.

Moniliformin Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Monoacetoxyscirpenol Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Neosolaniol Fusarium moniliforme, F. solani, F. culmorum, F.

avenaceum, and F. roseum

Nivalenol Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

NT-1 toxin Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

NT-2 toxin Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. , F. solani, avenaceum, F. roseum, and F.

nivale

Ochratoxin Aspergillus ochraceus, Penicillium viridictum

Oxalic acid Aspergillus niger

Patulin Aspergillus clavatus, Penicillium expansum, Botrytis, P.

roquefortii, P. claviforme, P. griseofulvum

Penicillic acid Aspergillus ochraceus

Mycotoxins List – Susan Lillard Roberts 8

Penitrem Penicillium crustosum

Roridin E Myrothecium roridum, M. verrucaria, Dendrodochium spp.

, Cylindrocarpon spp. , Stachybotrys spp.

Rubratoxin Penicillium rubrum

Rubroskyrin Penicillium spp.

Rubrosulphin Penicillium viridicatum

Rugulosin Penicillium brunneum, P. kloeckeri, P. rugulosum

Sambucynin +1 Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. solani, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F.

nivale

Satratoxins, F,G,H Stachybotrys chartarum, Trichoderma viridi

Scirpentriol Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F.

culmorum, F. solani, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F.

nivale

Slaframine Rhizoctonia leguminicola

Sterigmatocystin Aspergillus flavus, A. nidulans, A. versicolor, Penicillium

rugulosum

T-1 toxin Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. culmorum, F.

solani, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

T-2 toxin Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. culmorum, F.

solani, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale

Triacetoxyscirpendiol Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. avenaceum, F.

roseum, and F. nivale

Trichodermin Trichoderma viride

Trichothecin Trichothecium roseum

Trichoverrins Stachybotrys chartarum

Trichoverrols Stachybotrys chartarum

Tryptoquivalene Aspergillus clavatus

Verrucarin Myrothecium verrucaria, Dendrodochium spp. ,

Stachybotrys chartarum

Verruculogen Aspergillus fumigatus, Stachybotrys chartarum

Viopurpurin Trichophyton spp. , Penicillium viridicatum

Viomellein Aspergillus spp. , Penicillium aurantiogriseum, P.

crustosum, P. viridicatum

Viriditoxin Aspergillus fumigatus

Xanthocillin Eurotium chevalieri

Yavanicin+1 Fusarium culmorum, F. graminearum, F. oxysporum, F.

roseum, F. moniliforme, F. avenaceum, F. equiseti, and

F. nivale

Zearalenone Fusarium culmorum, F. graminearum, F. oxysporum, F.

roseum, F. moniliforme, F. avenaceum, F. equiseti, and

F. nivale

Mycotoxins List – Susan Lillard Roberts 9

Fungi are ubiquitous to the environment and primarily saprophytic, using nonliving

organic material as a nutrient source for growth and reproduction. Many of these

saprophytes can colonize organic water-damaged building materials. During the digestion

process fungi secrete enzymes into the nutrient source to break down complex

compounds into simpler compounds, which are taken up by the fungi and digested. The

digested nutrients are classified into two categories, primary and secondary metabolites.

The primary metabolites consist of cellulose and other compounds that are used for

energy to grow and reproduce.

The secondary metabolites, called mycotoxins, are produced to give fungi a competitive

edge against other microorganisms, including other fungi. There are over 200 recognized

mycotoxins, however, the study of mycotoxins and their health effects on humans is in

its infancy and many more are waiting to be discovered. Many mycotoxins are harmful to

humans and animals when inhaled, ingested or brought into contact with human skin.

Mycotoxins can cause a variety of short term as well as long-term health effects, ranging

from immediate toxic response to potential long-term carcinogenic and teratogenic

effects. Symptoms due to exposure to mycotoxins include dermatitis, cold and flu

symptoms, sore throat, headache, fatigue, diarrhea, and impaired or altered immune

function, which may lead to opportunistic infection. Historically, mycotoxins have been a

persistent problem to farmers and the animal husbandry industry in Eastern Europe and

developing countries. Mycotoxins are a known agent in biological warfare as a moderate

illness compared to the other biologicals.

Recently, however, research has implicated many toxin-producing fungi, such as

Stachybotrys, Penicillium, Aspergillus and Fusarium species, to indoor air quality

problems and building related illnesses. Inhalation of mycotoxin producing fungi in

contaminated buildings is the most significant exposure, however, dermal contact from

handling contaminated materials and the chance of ingesting toxin containing spores

through eating, drinking and smoking is likely to increase exposure in a contaminated

environment. Recent advances in technology have given laboratories the ability to test

for specific mycotoxins without employing cost-prohibitive gas chromatography or high

performance liquid chromatography techniques. Currently, surface, bulk, food and feeds,

and air samples can be analyzed relatively inexpensively for the following mycotoxins:

Aflatoxin

Aflatoxin is one of the most potent carcinogens known to man and has been linked to

a wide variety of human health problems. The FDA has established maximum

allowable levels of total aflatoxin in food commodities at 20 parts per billion. The

maximum level for milk products is even lower at 0.5 parts per billion. Primarily

Aspergillus species fungi produce aflatoxin.

Ochratoxin

Ochratoxin is primarily produced by species of Penicillium and Aspergillus.

Ochratoxin is damaging to the kidneys and liver and is also a suspected carcinogen.

There is also evidence that it impairs the immune system.

T-2 Toxin

Mycotoxins List – Susan Lillard Roberts 10

T-2 Toxin is a tricothecene produced by species of Fusarium and is one of the more

deadly toxins. If ingested in sufficient quantity, T-2 toxin can severely damage the

entire digestive tract and cause rapid death due to internal hemorrhage. T-2 has

been implicated in the human diseases alimentary toxic aleukia and pulmonary

hemosiderosis. Damage caused by T-2 toxin is often permanent.

Fumonisin

Fumonisin is a toxin associated with species of Fusarium. Fumonisin is commonly

found in corn and corn-based products, with recent outbreaks of veterinary

mycotoxicosis occurring in Arizona, Indiana, Kentucky, North Carolina, South

Carolina, Texas and Virginia. The animals most affected were horses and swine,

resulting in dozens of deaths. Fumonisin toxin causes "crazy horse disease", or

leukoencephalomalcia, a liquefaction of the brain. Symptoms include blindness, head

butting and pressing, constant circling and ataxia, followed by death. Chronic lowlevel

exposure in humans has been linked to esophageal cancer. The American

Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians (AAVLD) advisory levels for

fumonisin in horse feed is 5 ppm.

Vomitoxin or Deoxynivalenol(DON)

Vomitoxin, chemically known as Deoxynivalenol, a tricothecene mycotoxin, is

produced by several species of Fusarium. Vomitoxin has been associated with

outbreaks of acute gastrointestinal illness in humans. The FDA advisory level for

vomitoxin for human consumption is 1 ppm.

Zearalenone

Zearalenone is also a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium molds. Zearalenone toxin is

similar in chemical structure to the female sex hormone estrogen and targets the

reproductive organs.

Other mycotoxins of clinical significance are as follows:

Citrinin

Citrinin is a nephrotoxin produced by Penicillium and Aspergillus species. Renal

damage, vasodilatation, and bronchial constriction are some of the health effects

associated with this toxin.

Alternariol

Alternariol cytotoxic compound derived from Alternaria alternata

Satratoxin H

Satratoxin H is a macrocyclic tricothecene produced by Stachybotrys chartarum,

Trichoderma viridi and other fungi. High doses or chronic low doses are lethal. This

toxin is abortogenic in animals and is believed to alter immune system function and

makes affected individuals more susceptible to opportunistic infection.

Mycotoxins List – Susan Lillard Roberts 11

Gliotoxin

Gliotoxin is an immunosuppressive toxin produced by species of Alternaria,

Penicillium and Aspergillus.

Patulin

Patulin is a mycotoxin produced by Penicillium, Aspergillus and a number of other

genera of fungi. It is believed to cause hemorrhaging in the brain and lungs and is

usually associated with apple and grape spoilage.

Sterigmatocystin

Sterigmatocystin is a nephrotoxin and a hepatotoxin produced by Aspergillus

versicolor. This toxin is also considered to be carcinogenic. Other mycotoxins include

- Penicillic acid, roquefortine, cyclopiazonic acid, verrucosidin, rubratoxins A and B,

PR toxin, luteoskyrin, cychlochlorotine, rugulosin, erythroskyrine, secalonic acid D,

viridicatumtoxin, kojic acid, xanthomegnin, viomellein, chaetoglobosin C, echinulin,

flavoglaucin, versicolorin A, austamide, maltoyzine, aspergillic acid, paspaline,

aflatrem, fumagillin nigragillin chlamydosporol, isotrichodermin and many more.

As discussed there are many mycotoxins that can cause adverse health effects and

even death in humans. The synergistic effect of exposure to multiple mycotoxins

simultaneously is very poorly understood. Even more poorly understood are the byproducts

of mycotoxin degradation, particularly under the influence of strong

oxidizing agents such as sodium hypochlorite and/or ozone, agents frequently used

or misused by remediation personnel in the industry. More research is required in

this field to better understand the relationship of fungal contamination, mycotoxin

production on building substrates and building related disease.

Endotoxins

Endotoxin is the name given to a group of heat stabile lipopolysaccharide molecules

present in the cell walls of gram-negative bacteria that have a certain characteristic

toxic effect. The lipid portion of each molecule is responsible for its toxicity and can

vary between bacterial species and even from cell to cell. When inhaled, endotoxin

creates an inflammatory response in humans that may result in fever, malaise,

alterations in white blood cell counts, headache, respiratory distress and even death.

It is common to the environment due to the ubiquitous nature of Gram-negative

bacteria. Exposure to elevated levels of endotoxin primarily occurs through exposure

to aerosols from specific reservoirs such as cotton mills, wastewater treatment

facilities, air washers, humidifiers and any other occupational settings where Gramnegative

bacteria can flourish.

Mycotoxins

In addition to their roles as irritants and allergens, many fungi produce toxic

chemical constituents (Kendrick, 1992; Miller, 1992; Wyllie and Morehouse, 1977).

Mycotoxins List – Susan Lillard Roberts 12

Samson and co-workers (1996) defined mycotoxins as "fungal secondary metabolites

that in small concentrations are toxic to vertebrates and other animals when

introduced via a natural route". These compounds are non-volatile and may be

sequestered in spores and vegetative mycelium or secreted into the growth

substrate. The mechanism of toxicity of many mycotoxins involves interference with

various aspects of cell metabolism, producing neurotoxic, carcinogenic or teratogenic

effects (Rylander, 1999). Other toxic fungal metabolites such as the cyclosporins

exert potent and specific toxicity on the cellular immune system (