Mold-Help.org - The world's largest TOXIC MOLD website
  • Mold Basics
    • Mold Overview
    • Mold Symptoms
    • Mold Types & Images
    • Fungal Infections
  • Resources and Tools
    • Home Care
    • Health & Diet
    • Tips for Parents
    • Coping with Loss
    • Private Research
    • Legal Suggestions
    • Mold in the Bible
  • Mold News
    • Current Headlines
    • “Sick Buildings”
    • The Environment
    • Construction Industry
    • Govt. & Politics
    • The Workplace
    • Landlords & Tenants
    • Insurance Companies
    • Schools & Institutions
    • Strange Fungal Tales
    • Personal Mold Stories
    • Additional Articles
  • Agencies & Experts
  • About Mold-Help
    • Mold-Help News
  • Search
  • Menu Menu
  • X
  • Facebook

Epicoccum

in Mold Types & Images /by Carolyn Willbanks

A fungus in the phylum Ascomycota that is widespread and produces colored pigments. Epicoccum nigrum can be used as antifungal agents against other pathogenic fungi.

Epicoccum is a dematiaceous mitosporic mould widely distributed and commonly isolated from air, soil and foodstuff. It is found also in some animals and textiles. It is the common causative agent of leaf spots of various plants. The genus Epicoccum contains a single species, Epicoccum purpurascens. Epicoccum grows rapidly and produces woolly to cottony or felty colonies on potato dextrose agar at 25 degrees C. From the front, the colonies are yellow to orange, orange to red or pink initially and become greenish brown to black by aging. From the reverse, the same color is observed but is usually more intense than in the front view. Epicoccum may produce a diffusable pigment which turns the color of the inoculated medium to yellow, orange, red or brown. Black dots (100-2000 mm in diameter) may be observed macroscopically on the colony surface. These are the tufts of hyphae which have conidiophores on their surface. These tufts of hyphae are cushion-shaped and nonconvoluted and are called sporodochia.

Toxin Production and Clinical Significance

There are no documented cases of Epicoccum infection in humans or animals. Epicoccum is occasionally isolated from clinical samples. However, Epicoccum has not been documented as a pathogen and these isolates are considered as contaminants. contaminant / opportunistic pathogen, found in soil, air, water and rotting vegetation and can be commonly found in outdoor air. It is a common allergen, and rarely it can cause an infection in the skin.

Further Reading
    1. Abdel-Gawad, K.M., & Zohri, A.A., Fungal flora and mycotoxins of six kinds of nut seeds for human consumption in Saudi Arabia, Mycopathologia 124 (1993) 55-64.
    1. Aisner, J., Schimpff, S.C., Bennett, J.E., Young, V.M., Wiernik, P.H., Aspergillus infections in cancer patiens. Association with fireproofing materials in a new hospital. J.Am. Med. Assoc. 235 (1976) 411-412.
    1. Ajello, L., Hyalohyphomycosis and phaeohyphomycosis: two global disease entities of public health importance. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 1(1986) 243-251.
    1. Al-Suwaine, A.S., Bahkali, A.H., Hasnain, S.M., Seasonal incidence of airborne fungal allergens in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Mycopathologia 145(1999)15-22.
    1. Alberts, B., Bray, D., Lewis, J., Raff, M., Roberts, K.,Watson, J.D., in “Molecular Biology of the Cell”, published  by Garland Publishing, Inc, 1983.
    1. Ali, M.I., Salama, A.M., Ali, M.T., Possible role of solar radiation on viability of some air fungi in Egypt. Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Parasitendkd. Infektionskr. Hyg. 131 (1976) 757-759.
    1. Alexopoulos, C.J., Mims, C.W., Blackwell, M., Introductory mycology 4th ed. John Wiley, New York, 1996, 868.
    1. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygtienists, (ACGIH) Cincinattati, Ohio 1989, Guidelines for the assessment of bioaerosols in the indoor environment.
    1. Anaissie, E., Kantarjian, H., Jones, P., Barlogie, B., Luna, M., Lopez-Berestein, G., Bodey, G., Fusarium. A newly recognized fungal pathogen in inmunosuppresed patiens. Cancer 57 (1986) 2141-2145.
    1. Andersen, A.A., 1958. New sampler for the collection, sozing, and enumeration of viable airborne particles. J. Bacteriol. 76 (1958) 471-484.
    1. Arnow, P.M., Andersen, R.L., Mainous, P.D., Smith, E.J., Pulmonary aspergillosisi during hospital renovation. Am Rev. Resp. Dis. 118 (1978) 49-53.
    1. Arnow P.M,, Sadigh, M., Costas, C., Weil, D., Chudy, R., Endemic and epidemic aspergillosis associated with in-hospital replication of Aspergillus organisms. J Infect Dis 164 (1991) 998-1002.
    1. Arx, J.A., Guarro, J., and Figueras, M.J., The ascomycete genus Chaetomium. Nova Hedwigia Beiheft 14 (1986) 1-162.
    1. Arx, J.A.von, Rodriguez de Miranda, L., Smith, M.T., and Yarrow, D., The genera of Yeasts and Yeast like fungui. C.B.S., Stud. Mycol. 14 (1977).
    1. Bandoni, R.J., Aquatic hyphomycetes from terrestrial litter. In: Wicklow, D.T., Carrol, G.C., eds. The fungal comunity. Its organization and role in the ecosystem. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc., 1981. 693 – 708.
    1. Bissett, J., 1984, 1991, A revision of the genus Trichoderma I,II,III Can. J. Bot. 62 (1991) 924-931; Can.J.Bot. 69 (1991) 2357-2372; Can. J. Bot. 69 (1991) 2373-2417.
    1. Bocquet, P., Brucker, G., Integrated struggle against aspergillosis at the level of a single hospital or a hospital cluster. Pathol Biol (Paris) 42(1994)730-736.
    1. Burnett, H.L., and Hunter, B.B., Illustrated Genera of imperfect Fungi. MacMillan Publ. Co., Amsterdam. 1987.
    1. Bodey, G.P., Vartivarian, S., Aspergillosis, Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 8 (1989) 413-437.
    1. Burge, H.A., Boise, R.J., Rutherfor, J.A., and W.R. Solomon. Comparative recoveries of airborne fungus spores by viable and non viable modes of vollumetric collection. Mycopathologia 61(1977)27-33.
    1. Burge, H.A., and W.R. Solomon. Sampling and analysis of biological aerosols. Atmos. Environm. 21(1987)451-456.
    1. Burgess, L.W., Liddell, C.M., Summerell, B.A., Laboratory manual for Fusarium research, 2nd ed. University of Sydney, Sydney. 1988.
    1. Burton, J.R., Zachery, J.B., Bessin, R., et al Aspergillosis in four renal transplant recipients. Ann. Intern. Med. 77 (1972) 383-388.
    1. Buttner, M.P., Stetzenbach, L.D., Monitoring airborne fungal spores in an experimental indoor environment to evaluate sampling methods and the effects of human activity on air sampling. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59 (1993) 219-226.
    1. Calvo, M.A., Guarro, J., Suarez, G., Ramirez, C. Airborne fungi in Barcelona city (Spain). Mycopathology 71 (1980) 41-43.
    1. Calder?n-Garcidue?as, L., Delgado, R., Calder?n-Gardue?as, A., Meneses, A., Ruiz, L.M., De La Garza, J., Acuna, H., Villareal-Calder?n A., Raab-Traub, N., Devlin, R., Malignan neoplasms of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses: a series of 256 patients in Mexico City and Monterrey. Is air pollution the missing link? Otrolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 122 (2000) 499-508.
    1. Carmichael, J.W., Chrysosporium and some other aleuriosporic hyphomycetes. Can. J. Bot. 40 (1962) 1137-1173.
    1. Carmichael, J.W., Kendrick, W.B., Connors, I.L., and Sigler, L., Genera of Hyphomycetes. University Alberta Press, Edmonton, 1980, 386 pp.
    1. Cifuentes Blanco, J., M. Villegas R?os, J.L. Villareal-Ord?z and S. Sierra Galv?n. Diversity of macromycetes in pine-evergreen oak forest in Neovolcanic Axis, Mexico. En Mycology in Sustainable Development: Expanding Concepts, Vanishing Borders, eds. M.E.Palm and I.H. Chapela, Parkway Publ., Boone, N.C.
    1. Cole, G.T., and Kendrick, B., Taxonomic studies of Phialophora. Mycologia 65(1973)661-688.
    1. Cooley, J.D., Wong, W.C., Jumper, C.A., Straus, D.C., Correlation between the prevalence of certain fungi and sick building sindrom. Occup. Environ. Med. 55 (1998) 579-584.
    1. Cornet, M., Levy, V., Fleury, L., Lortholary, J., Barquins, S., Coureul, M.H., Deliere, E., Zittoun, R., Brucker, G., Bouvet, A., Efficacy of prevention by high-efficiency particulate air filtration or laminar airflow against Aspergillus airborne contamination during hospital renovation. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 20 (1999) 508-513.
    1. Cox & Wathes, Bioaerosols handbook, 1994.
    1. Dharmage, S., Bailey, M., Raven, J., Mitakakis, T., Thien, F., Forbes, A.,Guest, D., Abramson, M., Walters, E.H., Prevalence and residential determinants of fungi within homes in Melbourne, Australia, Clin Exp Allergy 29(1999)1481-1489.
    1. Davis, R., Summerbell, R., Haldane, D., Dufur, A., Yu, K., Broder, I., Dales, R., Kirkbride, J., Kauri, T., Robertson, W., Damant, L.; Federal – Provincial Working group on mycological Air quality in public buildings;  Fungal contamination in public buildings: A guide to recognition and Management. Health Canada, 1995.
    1. De Hoog G.S., Hermanides-Nijhof, E.J., The black yeast and aallied hyphomycetes. Stud. Mycol. 15 (1977) 1-222. Citado por clasificaci?n de levaduras.
    1. Domsch K.H., Gams, W., Anderson, T.H. Compendium of soil fungi. New York: Academic Press, 1980. Citado por screening de especies
    1. Domsch, K.H., W. Gams, and T.H. Anderson. 1980. Compendium of soil fungi. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK.
    1. Emmanuel, S.C.,Impact to lung health of haze from forest fires: the Singapore experience. Respirology 5 (2000) 175-182.
    1. Ezeonu, I.M., Price, D.L., Simmons, R.B., Crow, S.A., Ahearn, D.G., Fungal production of volatiles during growth on fiberglass. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60 (1994) 4172-4173.
    1. Fiorina, A., Legnani, D., Fasano, V., Cogo, A.,  Basnyat, B.,  Passalacqua, G., Scordamaglia, A., Pollen mite and mould samplings by a personal collector at high altitude in Nepal. J. Investig. Allergol. Clin. Immunol. 8 (1998) 85-88.
    1. Flynn PM, Williams BG, Hetherington SV, Williams BF, Giannini MA, Pearson TA, Aspergillus terreus during hospital renovation. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993 Jul;14(7):363-5.
    1. Freire, F.C., Kozakiewicz, Z., Paterson, R.R., Mycoflora and mycotoxins of Brazilian cashew kernels. Mycopathologia 145 (1999) 95-103.
    1. Fresenius, G., 1850-1863 Beitr?ge zur Mykologie 111pp, 13 plates. H.L., Br?nner, Frankfurt.
    1. Furuhashi M, Efficiency of bacterial filtration in various commercial air filters for hospital air conditioning. Bull Tokyo Med Dent Univ. 25 (1978) 147-155.
    1. Gage, A.A., Dean, D.C., Schimert, G., Minsley, N., Aspergillus infection after cardiac surgery. Arch. Surg. 101 (1970) 384-387.
    1. Garrett, M.H., Rayment, P.R., Hooper, M.A., Abramson, M.J., Hooper, B.M.,  Indoor borne fungal spores, house dampness and associations with environmental factors and respiratory health in children. Clin. Exp. Allergy 28 (1998) 459-467.
    1. Gonzalez Glez. Minero, F.J., Candau, P., Gonzalez Glez Romano, M.L., Romero, F., A study of the aeromycoflora of Cadiz: relationship to anthropogenic activity. J. Investig. Allergol. Clin. Immunol. 2 (1992) 211-215.
    1. Gordon, G., Axelrod, J.L., Case report: prosthetic valve endocarditis caused by Pseudallescheria boydii and Clostridium limosum. Mycopathologia 89 (1985) 12-134.
    1. Gravesen S., Nielsen, P.A., Iversen, R., Nielsen, K.F., Microfungal contamination of Dump Buildings. Examples of risk constructions and risk materials. Environ. Health Perspect 107 (1999) 505-508.
    1. Green, V.W., D.Vesley, R.G., Bond, R.G., and Michaelsen. Microbiological contamination of hospital air. Appl. Microbiol. 10 (1962) 561-566.
    1. Grosse G, L’Age M, Staib F., Peracute disseminated course of fatal Aspergillus fumigatus infection in liver failure and corticoid therapy. A case report on the epidemiology, pathogenesis and diagnosis of the systemic course of Aspergillus infections. Klin Wochenschr 63 (1985) 523-528.
    1. Guyton, A.C. and Hall, J.E., in pp 481, 531, 532 of “Textbook of Medical Physiology” ed McGraw-Hill-Interamericana de Espa?a, 1996.
    1. Hancock, T.,Creating health and health promoting hospitals: a worthy challenge for the twenty-first century. Int J Health Care Qual Assur Inc Leadersh Health Serv. 12 (1999) VIII-XIX.
    1. Hawksworth, D.L. and Kirsop, B.E., Ed. Living resources for biotechnology, Filamentous fungi, Cambridge University Press, 1988.
    1. Hawksworth, D.L., The fungal dimension of biodiversity: magnitude, significance, and conservation. Mycol. Res. 95(1991) 641-655.
    1. Hesler, L.R., and A.H. Smith, North American species of Lactarius. Univ. Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. xii+841pp.
    1. Hoog, G.S. de, and Guarro, J., Atlas of Clinical fungi, C.B.S., Baarn, The Netherlands. 1995.
    1. Hiipakka DW, Buffington JR1. Resolution of sick building syndrome in a high-security facility. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 2000 Aug;15(8):635-43.
    1. Hirst, Ann. appl. Biol. 39(1952)257.
    1. Hudson, H.J., Aspergilli in the air spore at Cambridge, Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 52 (1969)153-159.
    1. Isselbacher, K.J., Braunwald, E., Wilson, J.D., Martin, J.B., Fauci, A.S., Kasper, D.L., en Harrison, Principios de Medicina Interna, 13? Ed. Interamericana Mc Graw-Hill, 1994. pp. 1318… Octava parte
    1. Jager E, Ruden H, Zeschmar-Lahl, B., Composting facilities. 2. Aerogenic microorganism content at different working areas of composting facilities. Zentralbl. Hyg. Umweltmed. 196 (1994) 367-379.
    1. Jimenez, M., Mateo, R., Querol, A., Huerta, T., Hernandez, E., Mycotoxins and mycotoxigenic moulds in nuts and sunflower seeds for human consumption. Mycopathologia 115 (1991) 122-128.
    1. Jones, W., Morring, K., Morey, P., Sorensen, W., Evaluation of the Andersen viable  impactor for single stage sampling. Am. Ind. Hyg.  Assoc. J., 46 (1985) 294-298.
    1. Kendrick, B., Key to the genera of the hyphomycetes. Mycologue, Waterloo. 1994, 107 pp.
    1. Krasinski, K., Holzman, R.S., Hanna, B., Greco, M.A., Graff, M., Bhohal, M., Nososcomial fungal pulmonary infections (Zygomycetes, Aspergillus sp.) developed in two premature infants in a special care unit (SCU) adjacent to an area of renovation. Infect. Control, 6 (1985) 278-282.
    1. Kreger-van Rij, N.J.W., The yeast, a taxonomic study, Elsevier Sci. Public, Amsterdam 1984. Citado por clasificaci?n de levaduras.
    1. Kwon-Chung, K.J. and J.E. Bennett. 1992. Medical Mycology. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia and London.
    1. Kyriakides, G.K., Zinnman, H.H., Hall, W.H., Arora, V.K., Lifton, J., DeWolf, W.C., Miller, J., Immunologic monitoring and aspergillosis in renal transplant patients., Amer J Surg 131 (1976) 246-252.
    1. Largent, D.L., How to identify Mushrooms to genus 1._ Macroscopic Features.Mad River Press, Eureka, Calif., 86 pp.
    1. Largent, D.L., and Baroni, T.J., How to identify Mushrooms to genus 6._ Modern genera. Mad River Press, Eureka, Calif.1986, vi+277 pp.
    1. Largent, D.L., and Thiers, H.D., How to identify Mushrooms to genus 2._ Field identification of genera. Mad River Press, Eureka, Calif. 1977, vi+32 pp.
    1. Largent, D.L., Johnson, D., and Watling. 1977 , How to identify Mushrooms to genus 3._ Microscopic features. Mad River Press, Eureka, Calif. 1988, viii+148 pp.
    1. Lentino, J.R., Rosenkranz, M.A., Michaels, J.A:, Kurup, V.P., Rose, H.D., Rytel, M., Nosocomial Aspergillosis. A retrospective review of airborne disease secondary to road construction and contaminated air conditioners. Amer. J. Epidemiol. 116 (1982) 430-437.
    1. Lie, T.S., Hofer, M.,Hohnke, C., Krizek, L., Kuhnen, E., Iwantscheff, A., Koster, O., Overlack, A.,Vogel, J., Rommelsheim, K., Aspergillosis following liver transplantation as a hospital infection. Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr. 112 (1987) 297-301.
    1. Loo, V.G., Bertrand, C., Dixon, C., Vitye, D., DeSalis, B., McLean, A.P., Brox, A., Robson, H.G., Control of construction-associated nosocomial aspergillosis in an antiquated hematology unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 17 (1996) 360-364.
    1. L?pez-Martinez, R., Ruiz Sanchez, D., Guadalupe Huerta, Jos?, Esquenaze, A., Alvarez, M?.T. Variaci?n estacional de hongos productores de alerg?a en el sur de la ciudad de M?xico. Allergol. et Immunopathol. 14 (1986) 43-48.
    1. Loudon KW, Coke AP, Burnie JP, Shaw AJ, Oppenheim BA, Morris CQ. Kitchens as a source of Aspergillus niger infection. J. Hosp. Infect. 32 (1996) 191-198.
    1. Mahgoub H. A., Prevalence of airborne Aspergillus flavus in Khartoum (Sudan) Aispora with BODYTEXT01ence to dusty weather and inoculum survival in simulated summer conditions. Mycopathologia 104 (1988) 137-141.
    1. Mahieu LM, De Dooy JJ, Van Laer FA, Jansens H, Ieven MM, A prospective study on factors influencing aspergillus spore load in the air during renovation works in a neonatal intensive care unit. J Hosp Infect 2000 Jul;45(3):191-7.
    1. McGrath, J.J., Wong, W.C., Cooley, J.D., Straus, D.C., Continually measured fungal profiles in sick building syndrome. Curr. Microbiol. 38(1999)33-36.
    1. Miller, O.K., Jr. And Miller, H.H., Gasteromycetes. Morphological and development features with keys to the Orders, Families, and Genera. Mad River Press, Eureka, Calif. X+157 pp.
    1. Nakajima T, Azuma E, Hashimoto M, Toyoshima K, Hayashida M, Komachi Y., Factors aggravating bronchial asthma in urban children (I)–The involvement of indoor air pollution. Nippon Koshu Eisei Zasshi 45 (1998) 407-422.
    1. Nielsen, K.F., Gravesen, S., Nielsen, P.A., Andersen, B., Thrane, U., Frisvad, J.C., Production of mycotoxins on artificially and naturally infested building materials. Mycopathologgia 145 (1999) 43-56.
    1. Nolard, N., Links between risks of aspergillosis and environmental contamination. Review of the literature. Pathol Biol (Paris) 42 (1994) 706-710.
    1. Nolard, N., Invasive aspergillosis: nosocomial origin of epidemics. Review of the literature. Bull Acad Natl Med 180 (1996) 849-856.
    1. Paden, J. W., A centrifugation technique for separating ascospores from soil. Mycopathol. Mycol. Appl. 33 (1967) 382-384.
    1. Petersen, R.H., Checklist of fungi of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. National Park Service Management Report 29.
    1. Pieckkova, E., Jesenska, Z., Molds on house walls and the effect of their chloroform-extractable metaboliteson the respiratory cilia movement of one-day-old chicks in vitro. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 43 (1998) 672-678.
    1. Pitt, J., The genus Penicillium and its teleomorphic states Eupenicillium and Talaromyces, New York Academic Press, 1979.
    1. Prahl, P., Reduction of indoor airborn mould spores. Allergy 47 (1992) 362-365
    1. Raper, K.B., and Fennell, D.I., The genus Aspergillus, Ed. Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar, Florida, 1965, pp. 239.
    1. Rhame, F.S., Prevention of nosocomial aspergillosis, J. Hosp. Infec. 18 (1991) 466-472. Aspergillus fumigatus, flavus, terreus.
    1. Rhame, F.S., Streifel, A.J., Kersey, J.H. Jr., McGlave, P.B., Extrinsic risk factors for pneumonia in the patient at high risk of infection. Am J Med 76 (1984) 42-52.
    1. Richardson MD, Rennie S, Marshall I, Morgan MG, Murphy JA, Shankland GS, Watson WH, Soutar RL. Fungal survelliance of an open haematology ward. J Hosp Infect 45 (2000) 288-292.
    1. Rose, H.D., Varkey, B., Deep mycotic infection in the hospitalized adult: a study of 123 patiens. Medicine 54 (1975) 499-507.
    1. Rose, H.D., Hirsch S.R., Filtering hospital air decreases Aspergillus spore counts. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 119 (1979) 511-513.
    1. Rotstein C, Cummings KM, Tidings J, Killion K, Powell E, Gustafson TL, Higby D., An outbreak of invasive aspergillosis among allogeneic bone marrow transplants: a case-control study. Infect Control 6 (1985) 347-355.
    1. Rossman A.Y., Tulloss, R.E., O’Dell, T.E., Greg Thorn, R., in “Protocols for an  all taxa biodiversity inventory of fungi in a Costa Rican conservation area”, ed. Parkway Publishers, Inc. Boone, N.C., USA, 1998, 195 pp.
    1. Ruutu P, Valtonen V, Tiitanen L, Elonen E, Volin L, Veijalainen P, Ruutu T., An outbreak of invasive aspergillosis in a haematologic unit. Scand J Infect Dis 19 (1987) 347-351.
    1. Salkin, I.F., McGinnis, M.R., Dykstra, M.J., Rinaldi, M.G., Scedosporium inflatum, an emerging pathogen J. Clin. Microbiol. 26 (1988) 498-503. Lo aislan de una biopsia ?sea de una lesi?n osteomiel?tica de un ni?o de 6 a?os.
    1. Salama, A.M., Ali, M.I., El-Kirdassay, Z.H., Ali, T.M., A study of fungal radioresistance and sensitivity. Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Parasitendkd. Infektionskr. Hyg. 132 (1977) 1-13.
    1. Samson, A.,  Occurrence of moulds in modern living and working environments, Eur. J. Epidemiol. 1 (1985) 54-61.
    1. Sayer, W.J., Shean, D.B., and Ghosseiri, J., Estimation of airborne fungal flora by the Andersen sampler versus the gravity settling plate.J. Allergy 44 (1969) 214-227.
    1. Seltzer, J.M., Biological contaminants. J Allergy Clin Immunol 94 (1994) 318-326.
    1. Sessa A, Meroni M, Battini G, Pitingolo F, Giordano F, Marks M, Casella P., Nosocomial outbreak of Aspergillus fumigatus infection among patients in a renal unit? Nephrol Dial Transplant 1996 Jul;11(7):1322-4.
    1. Shearer, C.A., The freshwater ascomycetes. Nova Hedwigia 56 (1993) 1-33.
    1. Sherertz, R.J., Belani, A., Kramer, B.S., Elfenbein, G.J., Weiner R.S., Sullivan, M.L., Thomas, R.G., Samsa, G.P., Impact of air filtration on nosocomial Aspergillus infections. Unique risk of bone marrow transplant recipients. Am. J. Med. 83 (1987) 709-718.
    1. Simmons, E.G., Typification of Alternaria Stemphylium, and Ulocladium, Mycologia, 59 (1967) 67-92.
    1. Simmons, R.B., Price, D.L., Noble, J.A., Crow, S.A., Ahearn, D.G., Fungal colonization of air filters from hospitals. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 58 (1997) 900-904.
    1. Sivanesan, A., The bitunicate Ascomycetes and their anamorphs. J.Cramer, Vaduz, Germany. 1984, 701 pp.
    1. Sorenson, W.G., Fracer, D.G., Jarvis, B.B., Simpson, J., and Robinson, V.A., Trichothecene mycotoxinsin aerosolized conidia of Stachybotrys atra. Appl. Environm. Microbiol. 53(1987)1370-1375.
    1. Streifel, A.J., Stevens, P.P., Rhame, F.S., In-hospital source of airborne Penicillium species spores. J Clin Microbiol 25 (1987) 1-4.
    1. Summerbell, R.C., Krajden, S., and Kane, J., Potted plants in hospitals as reservoirs of pathogenic fungi. Mycopathology 106 (1989) 13-22.
    1. Summerbell, R.C., The heterobasidiomycetous yeast genus Leucosporidium in an area of temperate climate. Can.J.Bot 61 (1983) 1402-1410.
    1. Summerbell, R.C., Protocols for Investigation of Indoor Fungal Amplifiers, http://members.aol.com/summerbelr/
    1. Taplin, D., Mertz, P.M., Flower vases in hospitals as reservoirs of pathogens. The lancet II(1973)1279-1281.
    1. Thrower, S.L., Hong Kong Lichens, Urban council, Hong Kong, 1988., incluye fotos en color de 140 especies.
    1. Trujillo-Jurado, D., Infante Garc?a-Pantale?n, F., Gal?n Soldevilla, C., Dom?nguez Vilches, E., Seasonal and daily variation of Aspergillus Mich. Ex Fr. spores in the atmosphere of C?doba (Spain). Allergol. et Immunopathol., 18(1990) 167-173.
    1. Verhoeff A.P., van Wijnen, J.H.,  Boleij J.S., Brunekreef B.,van Reenen-Hoekstra E.S., Samsom, R.A; Allergy 45 (1990) 275-284.
    1. Verhoeff A.P., van Wijnen, J.H., Brunekreef B., Fischer, P., van Reenen-Hoekstra E.S., & Samsom, R.A., Allergy 47 (1992) 83-91.
    1. Verhoeff A.P., van Wijnen, J.H., Fischer, P., Brunekreef B., Boleij J.S., van Reenen-Hoekstra E.S., Samsom, R.A., Presence of viable mould propagupes in the indoor air of houses. Toxicol. Ind. Health 6 (1990) 133-145.
    1. Vermorel-Faure, O., Lebeau, B.,Malleret, M.R., Michallet, M., Brut, A., Ambroise-Thomas, P., Grillot, R., Risque fongique alimentaire au cours de l’agranulocytose. Controle mycologique de 273 aliments propos?s ? des malades hospitalis?s en secteur st?rile, La Presse M?dicale 22 (1993) 157-160.
    1. Vleggaar, R., Steyn, P.S., Nagel, D.W., Constitution and absolute configuration of austdiol, the main toxic metabilite from Aspergillus ustus. J. Chem. Soc. [Perkin 1] 1(1974) 45-49.
    1. Volkmann-Kohlmeyer, B., and Kohlmeyer, J., How to prepare truly permanent microscopic slides. The Mycologist 10 (1996)107-108.
    1. Walsh, T.J. and Dixon, D.M. Nosocomial aspergillosis: environmental microbiology, hospital epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 5 (1989) 131-142.
    1. Woods GL, Davis JC, Vaughan WP., Failure of the sterile air-flow component of a protected environment detected by demonstration of Chaetomium species colonization of four consecutive immunosuppressed occupants. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 10(1988)451-456.
    1. Yoshimura, I., Lichen Flora of Japan in Colour, Hoikusha Publ. Co., Osaka. 349 pp. Est? en Japon?s pero incluye muchas ilustraciones.
  1. Zak, J.C., and Wicklow, D.T., Response of carbonicolous Ascomycetes to aerated steam temperatures and treatment intervals. Canad. J. Bot 56 (1978) 2313-2318.
Share this entry
  • Share on Facebook
  • Share on X
  • Share on X
  • Share on Reddit
  • Share by Mail
https://www.mold-help.org/wp-content/uploads/2004/10/epicoccum2.jpg 216 288 Carolyn Willbanks https://www.mold-help.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/moldhelp-654x300.png Carolyn Willbanks2004-10-03 21:02:322019-02-22 04:12:16Epicoccum

Mold Basics

  • Mold Overview
  • Mold Symptoms
  • Mold Types & Images
  • Fungal Infections

Latest Posts

  • Michigan Family Finds Toxic Mold Inside Home
  • California Winter Storms: Water Damage and Mold Exposure Concerns in California
  • Office and Commercial Buildings at Risk for Mold after COVID-19 Closings
  • COVID-19 Symptoms May Include Loss of Taste and Smell
  • New Mold Detox Information on the Horizon
  • COVID-19 Courses of Action
  • Stachybotrys
  • Simple and Easy Ways to Prevent the Coronavirus
  • Your Air Conditioning Unit Helps Eliminate Mold
  • Construction Workers Are Learning to Control Dust and Debris

Search Our Site:

Need Help with Mold?

Are you being affected by mold or other mycotoxins in your environment? Our team and community has over 15 years experience and can provide guidance. You can reach us by submitting your contact or through our Facebook page.

Have a Story to Share?

We're looking for stories and input to expand our database and to add to the personal experiences we've received from the thousands of victims over the last 15. If mold has impacted your life, please take the time to share your story. Your information is confidential and will only be shared with your permission.

Seeking Mold Experts

Are you an expert in the treatment of mold-affected health illnesses, or a provider of services to victims of mycotoxin exposure? Submit your information for listing consideration in our Agencies & Experts resource database.

Additional Resources

  • Contact Us
  • Sitemap
  • Glossary of Terms
  • Survivor Resources
  • General Inquiries
  • Legal Disclaimer

© Copyright - Mold-Help Organization
  • X
  • Facebook
  • Mold Basics
  • Resources and Tools
  • Agencies & Experts
  • Mold News
  • About Mold-Help
Scroll to top

This site uses cookies. By continuing to browse the site, you are agreeing to our use of cookies.

OKLearn more

Cookie and Privacy Settings



How we use cookies

We may request cookies to be set on your device. We use cookies to let us know when you visit our websites, how you interact with us, to enrich your user experience, and to customize your relationship with our website.

Click on the different category headings to find out more. You can also change some of your preferences. Note that blocking some types of cookies may impact your experience on our websites and the services we are able to offer.

Essential Website Cookies

These cookies are strictly necessary to provide you with services available through our website and to use some of its features.

Because these cookies are strictly necessary to deliver the website, refusing them will have impact how our site functions. You always can block or delete cookies by changing your browser settings and force blocking all cookies on this website. But this will always prompt you to accept/refuse cookies when revisiting our site.

We fully respect if you want to refuse cookies but to avoid asking you again and again kindly allow us to store a cookie for that. You are free to opt out any time or opt in for other cookies to get a better experience. If you refuse cookies we will remove all set cookies in our domain.

We provide you with a list of stored cookies on your computer in our domain so you can check what we stored. Due to security reasons we are not able to show or modify cookies from other domains. You can check these in your browser security settings.

Other external services

We also use different external services like Google Webfonts, Google Maps, and external Video providers. Since these providers may collect personal data like your IP address we allow you to block them here. Please be aware that this might heavily reduce the functionality and appearance of our site. Changes will take effect once you reload the page.

Google Webfont Settings:

Google Map Settings:

Google reCaptcha Settings:

Vimeo and Youtube video embeds:

Accept settingsHide notification only